Cigarette Smoking and Its Relationship with Pulmonary Tuberculosis

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

Abstract

 

Introduction: Pulmonary tuberculosis is one of the most known human diseases and has a long history. Regarding the fact that its prevalence among Iranians is relatively high, several programs have been designed in order to control this disease. The objective of this study was to determine wether there is any relationship between pulmonary tuberculosis and cigarette smoking as an independent risk factor.
Material and Methods:This study was a case control survey done in Pulmonary Ward of Imam Reza Hospital from January 2003 to March 2006. 64 males with tuberculosis were compared with 64 non – tuberculotic males in the same range of age. Data was gathered with a direct questionnaire and analyzed with SPSS software.
Results:The results derived from this study indicated that the percentage of smokers was 59.4% in the case group who had pulmonary tuberculosis; while it turned to be 37.5% in the control group. These was a significant difference between two groups in smoking duration, number of cigarretes smoked per day and the age about which the smokers started smoking.
Conclusion:The study showed that smoking is an independent risk factor for pulmonary tuberculosis infection. Regarding other studies that revealed the role of cigarette smoking in suppressing the immune system, it is highly advised to design effective programs for cigarette quitting to reduce the rate of tuberculosis in the society.

Keywords


1-Wise J. WHO identifies 16 countries struggling to control tuberculosis. BMJ 1998; 316 7136: 957.
2-Ahmadi J, khalili H, Jooybari R, Namazi N, Mohammadagaei P. Prevalence of cigarette smoking in Iran. Psychol
Rep 2001 Oct; 89(2): 339-41.
3-Mousavi – Jarrahi A, Mohagheghi M, Yazdi Zadeh B, Kolahi AA, Tahmasebi S, Sharifi S. Analysis of smoking
behaviour among iranian population : a cohort and period analysis. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2004 Jan – Mar;
5(1): 66-9.
4-Leung Chi C, Yew WW, chan CK, Tam CM, Lam CW, Chang KC, Chau CH, Lau KS, Law WS. Smoking and
tuberculosis in hong kong. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2003 Oct; 7: 980-6 .
5- Sarraf – Zadegan N, Boshtam M, Shahrokhi S, Naderi GA, Asgary S, Shahparian M, Tafazoli F. Tobacco use
among Iranian men, women and adolescents. Eur J Public Health 2004 Mar; 14 (1): 76-8.
6- Doll R, Hill AB. Lung cancer and other causes of mortality in relation to smoking : a second report on mortality
of british british doctors. BMJ 1956; 12: 1071-81.
7- Mauryra V, vijayan VK, Shah A. Smoking and tuberculosis: an association overlooked. Int J (Tuberc) Lung Dis
2002 Nor; 6(11): 942-5.
8- Den Boon S, Van Lill SW, Borgdorff MW, Vewer S, Bateman Ed, lombard CJ, enarson DA, Beyers N.
Association between smoking and tuberculosis infection: a population survery in a high tuberculosis incidence area.
Thorax 2005 Jul; 60(7): 555-7.
9- Kolappan C, Gopi PG. Tobacco smiking and pulmonary tuberculosis. Thorax HIV 2002; 57(11): 964-6.
10- Ariyothai N, podhipak A, Akarasewi P, Tornee S, smith tikarn S, Thongprathum P. Cigarette smoking and its
relation to pulmonary tuberculosis in adults. Southeast asian J trop Med Public Health 2004 Mar; 35(1): 219-27 .
11- Bothamley G. Smoking and tuberculosis: a chance or causal association? Thorax 2005; 60: 527-8.
12- Elssner A, carter JE, Yunger TM. HIV-1 infection does not impair human alveolar macrophages phagocytic
function unless combined with cigarett smoking. Chest 2004; 125: 1071-6 .
13- Nouri – Shirazi M, Guinet E. Evidence for the immunosuppressive role of nicotine on human dendritic cell
functions. Immunology 2003; 109: 365-73.
14- Geng Y, Sarage SM, Razani – Boroujerdi S. Effects of nicotine on the imune response. II. Chronic nicotine
treatment induces T cell angergy. J Immunol 1996; 156: 2384-90.
15- Tkeuchi M, Nagai S, Nakajima A. Inhibition of lung natural killer cells activity by smoking: the role of alveolar
macrophages. Respiration 2001; 68: 262-7.
16- Borovikora LV, Ivanova S, Zhang M, Yang H, Botchkina GI, watkins LR. Yagus nerve stimulation alternates
the systemic inflammatory response to endotoxin. Nature 2000; 405 : 458-62 .
17- Wang H, Yu M, Ochani M, Amella CA, Tanoric M, Susarla S. Nicothinic acetylcholinergic receptor alpha – 7
sbunit is an essential regulator of inflammation. Nature 2003; 421: 384 – 8.
18- Keane J, Gershon S, Wise RP, Mirabile – levens E, kasznica J, schwieterman WD. Tuberculosis associated with
infliximab, a TNF-a neutralizing agent. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 1098-1104.
19- Bieber J, kavanaugh A. cigarete smoking, TB and TNF inhibitors. Annals of the Rheumatic Dis 2003; 62:
1118-19 .
20- Leung Chi C , Teresa Li, Tai H, Wing W, Wing S, Cheuk M, Waim C, Chi K, Kin S, Kwok C. smoking and
tuberculosis among the elderly in hong kong. American J of Respiratory and Critical Care Med 2004; 170:
1027-33.